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Oktober , abgerufen am 5. Oktober englisch. Apple-Pressemitteilung, Gesamtumsatz: ,7 Mrd. Davon iPhone und iPad: ,4 Mrd. And it should be noted that this mill law is common throughout the Eu- ropean languages.
It goes back to medieval Latin records, where the proverb appears in various wordings. The following three medieval Latin variants clearly indicate the legal nature of the old proverb by using such words as right and rightfully law and lawfully : Qui capit ane molam, merito molit ante farinam. Whoever arrives first at the mill, rightfully grinds his flour first Ante de iure molit, molam qui prius adivit. He by right grinds first, who first came to the mill Iure, molendinum qui tardus adit, molet imum.
Whoever comes to the mill first, grinds first Qui cicius venerit, cicius molit. The many translations of his Adagia proverb collection helped to spread this fascinating proverb from language to language through the process of loan translations.
Who arrives first, should grind first Spanish: Quien primero viene, primero muele. Who comes first, grinds first Dutch: Die eerst ter molen comt sal eerst malen. In any case, examples of the longer mill proverb can be found in many Germanic and Romance languages today, but in English it has been lost and has become a very general and barely metaphorical rule of conduct.
His beard, as any sow or fox, was red, And broad it was as if it were a spade. A sword and buckler bore he by his side. His mouth was like a furnace door for size. He was a jester and could poetize, But mostly all of sin and ribaldries. He could steal corn and full thrice charge his fees; And yet he had a thumb of gold, begad. A white coat and blue hood he wore, this lad. A bagpipe he could blow well, be it known, And with that same he brought us out of town.
Prologue, — This description reduces the miller to a Judas-like deceiver with his red beard, black nostrils, furnace-like mouth and chunky as well as broad body frame. And one might well ask why the miller and his honorable profession deserve such a prejudicial characterization?
For the most part it must have been a psy- chological reaction by customers who felt very much dependent on the miller. They needed him to get their grain ground, and they wanted the most meal and as quickly as possible from their grain. This placed them in the con- trolling hands of the miller.
In fact, they were actually at his mercy, and they projected their fears and anxieties of being controlled and perhaps cheated upon this tradesman. Thus the proverb relates to problems of deception and mis- trust among members of two very basic professions. A short poem by Nicholas Breton from the year shows all of this quite clearly, indicating one more time how the folk saw the role of the miller whose broad thumb influenced the weight scales to his own advantage and to the detriment of his customers: I would I were a Myller and could grind A hundred thousand bushels in an hour, And ere my Master and my Dame had dinde Be closely filching of a bag of flour.
That is a wonderfully satirical verse about human greed at the expense of the miller profession. Whether the expectations were justified or not, many a farmer will have felt cheated by the miller when confronted by the small amount of ground flour from the large quantity of grain originally supplied.
Such stereotypical expressions exist about other professions as well, no- tably against lawyers, physicians, and priests. This is not necessarily directed negatively against the miller. The proverb simply states that one cannot pay attention or be aware of everything, using the metaphor of the mill and its miller to describe this fact through known facts. This is exactly the way Shakespeare employs this metaphorical proverb.
In the literary context of its appearance in Titus Andronicus, it has absolutely nothing to do with a mill or a miller. What, man! Here the proverb functions simply as a bit of rationalization and positive per- suasion to encourage the brother to pursue his amorous desires.
Of course, there is also a bit of misogyny in those sentences preceding the proverb with its metaphorical message that Chiron should be able to win Lavinia in a clan- destine fashion. They are nothing but innocuous metaphorical phrases referring to someone having added too much water to a recipe, espe- cially one thickened with flour. The second expression with the same meaning simply alludes to the fact that millers using water-wheels for power had little need for more water.
And proverbs about the mill itself? These proverbs seem almost simplistic in their wisdom. In its metaphorical meaning the proverb alludes to the general truth that small causes will have small effects. As is the case with hundreds of proverbs, this proverb found its way into the vernacular languages.
But the message is the same: justice is often a slow process, but it is inevitable. Examples and Texts 51 Thus retribution may be delayed, but it is certain to overtake the wicked sin- ners. Here we have God or the ancient gods as the ultimate miller metaphorically grinding up his imperfect children, that is, punishing them for their sins. This interpretation can also be seen in a passage in A.
This can be seen quite well from two references out of letters by George Bernard Shaw. Thus Winston S. Truman used the phrase effectively to de- liver a Cold War slam at the Soviet Union: The Soviet Union has hitherto refused to cooperate with the free na- tions on real disarmament or control of arms and has used every con- ference or international discussion on disarmament merely to further her own design for conquest.
In the face of past failures and even realiz- ing the Russians still are seeking only further grist for their peace prop- aganda mills, while they arm for imperialistic purposes, we ought to put the burden of proof on the Russians by answering them with a concrete counter-proposal.
One is reminded of a modern interpretation of this phrase in D. What are the chances of survival of the proverbial language cited as exam- ples in this short survey of metaphorical wisdom relating to millers and mills? Some of them have already dropped out of general use, and their old and an- tiquated metaphors are in need of historical and cultural explanation in order to be understood at all.
But there are also those more common expressions that will definitely continue to be effective images for a modern life that is becom- ing ever more devoid of traditional mills. With such an inter- national dissemination of the proverb it should not be surprising that it also made its way to the distant United States, but let me mention here as an aside that it never really made it across the English Channel.
Americans most likely learned the German proverb from immigrants who carried it with them to their new homeland. It should surprise no one that W. The apple does not fall far from the trunk. Edwin Fogel includes it again in German in his su- perb collection of Proverbs of the Pennsylvania Germans , but in the subsequent decades it was registered in English translation in regional collec- tions from North Carolina, New York, Illinois, and Washington.
The Dictionary of American Proverbs that is based on this major collecting exercise from oral sources ascribes a general United States currency to it. Checking through 18 German-English dictionaries dating from to , it becomes clear that English and American lexicographers have strug- gled for many years to find the appropriate equivalent to the German proverb, when at least by the s if not earlier they could have cited the loan translation that had become quite established in the United States at least.
But lexicography appears to be a rather conservative endeavor, and it would behoove lexicographers to pay more attention to the impressive com- parative research that phraseologists and paremiologists have been conduct- ing for quite some time. As it is, it took until for the translated proverb to appear in a foreign-language dictionary. Alan Dundes was able to make available to me an impressive 73 references of this proverb that were collected by his students at the University of Cali- fornia at Berkeley between and They also make clear that immigrants like the Pennsylvania Germans brought the proverb with them to America.
In fact, 35 of the 73 references state that this is a German proverb. But there are 12 informants who consider the proverb of Yiddish origin, two informants each claim that it is Swedish or Russian, and one in- formant thinks it to be Irish. This should not be surprising since, as has been shown, the proverb is well known throughout most of Europe. What follows are some quotations from these records to illustrate the importance and value of folklore archives for the historical and geographical study of proverbs.
A reference that cites the proverb in the German language was collected by a student on January 26, , from Frieda Barkley, a retired German- American teacher from Benicia, California.
Barkley in , she was 82 years old. Surely she had heard and learned the proverb from her parents before the turn of the century, and this reference is an indication of how immigrants maintain their proverbs within the family setting where the native language continues to be spoken.
Another older German immigrant placed the proverb into an alarming context in that, unfortunately, applies also to the present-day situation in the reunified Germany.
She believes she learned it from her mother, Sarah Beber, between the ages of 10 or 15, circa This proverb is a Yiddish saying that was used by everyone. Sarah Beber moved to the United States from Germany, and this proverb was one of those that she had learned when she had been little. Just as other German immigrants, they continued citing it in Yiddish or German in this country, eventually also translating it into English when communicating with people who knew only that language.
There is no doubt that the Jewish pop- ulation in America did play its part in spreading this proverb. Even though the Folklore Archive at Berkeley contains no references by Dutch immigrants, it must be mentioned here that they also brought the proverb with them to the United States.
This is made abundantly clear in a letter to the editor of U. Though well into my 70s, I can still hear my elders speaking their native Dutch about the accomplishments and peccadilloes of neighbors and family: Ya, de appel valt niet ver van de boom—Yes, the apple falls not far from the tree.
Modern scholars might belittle the positivistic folklore collections of earlier times, but they still need accessible texts, hopefully with contexts, to do seri- ous historical and geographical work.
It behooves folklorists from time to time to publish new collections in order to show the modern use of proverbs and other verbal folklore genres. The folklore archives contain not only texts in contexts, they often also include invaluable interpretive comments by both the informants and collectors. These are treasures that should be used, pub- lished, and interpreted, if folklore as a scholarly discipline wants to maintain its credibility.
In the meantime, the modern computer offers diachronic research possi- bilities that can only be called the dream of any historically minded folklorist let alone paremiologist. While the database goes back only to the end of the s, it is now constantly being expanded to become more and more inclusive.
This short contextualized reference can then be printed out at once, but one can also decide to print out the entire wonder upon wonders! Obviously the miraculous world of computer searches of databases has its problems and snags at times, but none of them negate their positive value. Furthermore, there is not a single Anglo-American proverb collection that would even come close to listing over a hundred references for any proverb. In fact, not even all such collections could together come up with that number of citations for a single proverb.
Database searching for particular proverbs is truly revolu- tionizing paremiography as it has been known thus far. Mention has already been made that the proverb appears to exhibit some- what of a male association. This fact is certainly born out by the 45 contex- tualized references that clearly refer to a father and son relationship. A typical use of the proverb in this meaning is the following excerpt from an article on Pennsylvania politics: The state is well into its second generation of moderate-to-leftish Re- publican leaders.
Its gubernatorial candidate, Lt. William W. This summer, the younger Scranton is showing that in Pennsylvania, the apple does not fall far from the tree.
The proverb is rarely used to refer to the relationship of mother and son, probably because the physiognomic and physical similarities between them might not be as striking as between two males. If you want to know where Clinton first learned to use his head—not to mention where he got his indomitable, take-a-licking-and-keep-on-ticking spirit—look no fur- ther than Virginia Clinton Kelley.
No immediate reason for this discrepancy comes to mind, save that the proverb is in fact of a predominantly male orientation. The mother was a kurveh [whore] and so is the daughter.
After all, children are usually a product of the traits and attitudes of both parents. But it must also be said that this proverb does not always refer to family relations either. In a word, yes. The proverb is changed to state that the apples fall far from the tree, a shrewd advertising trick or pun to indicate that new models of Apple computers are reaching ever expanding markets.
There was a time when the doyen of proverb studies, Archer Taylor, stated in the old Proverbium journal that one must not leave any stone unturned when investigating the origin, history, and dissemination of a particular proverb see Taylor Taylor accomplished his numerous historical stud- ies of individual proverbs by searching through proverb collections and liter- ary works for references and variants.
But just imagine if he had had such folklore archives as the one at Berkeley at his disposal. The conclusion that all historical proverb dictionaries are sorely out of date is cer- tainly justified.
Much updating work is needed to register older as well as newer references for at least the more important proverbs. The investigation of individual proverbs has indeed become revolutionized by the electronic age. Leaving no stone unturned in proverb searches now means even more consultation of printed texts, the careful scrutiny of folklore archives based on field research, and many fruitful hours scanning vast computerized databases. As people look at these slurs, it is becoming ever more obvious that the native population suffered terribly in the name of ex- pansion and progress.
Native Americans were deprived of their homeland, killed mercilessly or placed on reservations, where many continue their mar- ginalized existence to the present day. It is alarming that this invective against Native Americans that became cur- rent on the frontier around is still in use today, astonishingly enough both by the general population and the Native Americans themselves.
Wit- ness for example the book title The Only Good Indian: Essays by Canadian In- dians that was chosen for a collection of short prose and poetic texts in which these native inhabitants from Canada express their frustration with their marginalized life in modern society. How bad must their plight be if the editor, Waubageshig, decided to choose this invective against his own people as a title!
The explanation is given in the introduction as follows: Police brutality, incompetent bureaucrats, legal incongruities, destruc- tive education systems, racial discrimination, ignorant politicians who are abetted by a country largely ignorant of its native population, are conditions which Indians face daily.
Yes, the only good Indian is still a dead one. Not dead physically, but dead spiritually, mentally, economi- cally and socially. The result is a shocking stereotypical image that permeates all modes of expression, of which linguistic examples are only a small part.
There can be no doubt about the sad fact that Native Americans were declared proverbially dead by the middle of the nineteenth century, es- pecially after the end of the American Civil War, when United States soldiers joined bigoted frontier settlers in a mercilessly carried out campaign to kill off the native population of this giant land. Such willfully planned and ruthlessly executed destruction of the Native Americans needed its battle slogan, a ready-made catchphrase that could help the perpetrators to justify the inhuman treatment of their victims.
Its poly-semanticity is grotesque to say the least. On the one hand, it is a proverbial slogan that justifies the actual mass slaughter of In- dians by the soldiers. Be it by physical or spiritual death, Native Americans were doomed victims of perpetrators who acted with manifest destiny on their side while so- called innocent bystanders did nothing to prevent the holocaust of the Na- tive Americans. The time was ripe for this all-encompassing and all-telling proverb, but whence did it come?
Although most lexicographers attribute it to a remark allegedly made by Gen- eral Philip Sheridan in , the terminus a quo for this slur can be found in The Congressional Globe: Containing the Debates and Proceedings of the Second Session [of the] Fortieth Congress I have never in my life seen a good Indian and I have seen thousands except when I have seen a dead Indian.
I believe in the policy that exterminates the Indians, drives them outside the boundaries of civilization, because you cannot civilize them. It is his luck. It must be remembered that James Michael Cavanaugh from Montana had expressed a quite similar sen- tence already in in the United States House of Representatives, and no- body is claiming that he originated this frontier proverb.
If it was not General Philip Sheridan who coined the proverb in its present form, it was certainly also not an even more famous, or rather infamous, In- dian fighter who made the following incredible remarks during a speech in January of in New York: I suppose I should be ashamed to say that I take the Western view of the Indian.
The most vicious cowboy has more moral principle than the average Indian. Reckless, revengeful, fiendishly cruel, they rob and murder, not the cowboys, who can take care of themselves, but the defenseless, lone settlers on the plains. Just as this proverb persists in oral communication, so it also permeates written sources from scholarly books to novels, from magazines to newspa- pers, and even on to cartoons.
This early reference also shows already what is to become a pattern in more modern uses of the proverb. Such vari- ants show, of course, also the regrettable internationalization of the slander- ous proverb and its underlying proverbial formula. Besides the German enemy there were, of course, also the Japanese soldiers to contend with. The only good Indian is a dead Indian. How is that in the former Yugoslavia? The only good Bosnian, Moslem, Christian, Croatian is.
Its adaptability as a national stereotype is clearly without limit. The same is true for some of the following trivializations of the original proverbial invective. As can be readily seen from these variants, they express to a large degree anx- ieties of people about such things as murders in detective novels or animals such as raccoons, snakes, and mice. Anyone can catch a mouse; it is no trick at all; it is putting them off and keeping them down [by locating the mousehole s ] that is important.
What you must do if you are at all principled about your work, is to conduct a war of nerves on the creatures. Sure, this is a bit of humor perhaps, especially if one continues to read an- other two pages of this seemingly futile exercise, but the careful reader might Cited from The Burlington Free Press August 16, , comic section. Behind the an- imalistic trivialization of the slanderous proverb hovers inescapably the historical truth of human extermination.
Honest enough if you discount the saying in these parts that the only honest nigger is a dead nigger. But we white men, as we absurdly call ourselves in spite of the testimony of our looking glasses, regard all differently colored folk as inferior species.
In the meantime the proverb as a direct slur against the Native Americans continues to be in use, an ever ready invective to be cited to keep the painful stereotype alive. The only good kind is the dead kind. There is no end in sight as far as eradicating this proverb from common parlance.
Present company excepted, of course. The cartoon in the New Yorker just mentioned is a small example of this type of sick humor, but even more upsetting is a short story by Mack Reynolds with the suspect title Good Indian In its mere nine pages the author describes three Indians coming to sign a treaty.
The director of the De- partment of Indian Affairs gets them intoxicated and cheats them out of their land. Dowling, you mean. Far too long has this proverb given justification to the literal and spiritual killing of Native Americans. In its poetic brevity is expressed the national shame of a people whose majority succumbed to the worldview that Native Americans had to give up their identity or be killed.
The fact that this tiny piece of folk wisdom is still current today is a very sad comment on this soci- ety and its behavior towards Native Americans. As long as there remain prej- udices and stereotypes about this minority population, the proverb will not cease to exist. Wherever it will be uttered or written, it will expose blatant in- humanity towards the Native Americans. This being the case, it is only natural to ask such questions as: When and why do good fences make good neighbors?
In other words, the proverb con- tains within itself the tension between boundary and openness, between de- marcation and common space, between individuality and collectivity, and between many other conflicting attitudes that separate people from each other, be it as neighbors in a village or city or as nations on the international scene.
Much is at stake when it comes to erecting a fence or a wall, no matter whether the structure is meant for protection or separation from the other, to wit the Great Wall of China, the Berlin Wall, the walls that separate Ameri- cans from Mexicans or Israelis from Palestinians, and one individual neighbor from another.
Should it not be the goal of humankind to tear down fences and walls everywhere? How can anybody justify the erec- tion or maintenance of barriers between people and neighbors? Good fences restrain fencebreaking beasts, and preserve good neigh- borhoods. The passage also already mirrors the political interpretation of the proverb that has become quite prevalent in the modern mass media. The work of hunters is another thing: I have come after them and made repair Where they have left not one stone on a stone, But they would have the rabbit out of hiding, To please the yelping dogs.
The gaps I mean, No one has seen them made or heard them made, But at spring mending-time we find them there. I let my neighbor know beyond the hill; And on a day we meet to walk the line And set the wall between us once again.
We keep the wall between us as we go. To each the boulders that have fallen to each. Oh, just another kind of outdoor game, One on a side. It comes to little more: There where it is we do not need the wall: He is all pine and I am apple orchard. But here there are no cows.
I see him there Bringing a stone grasped firmly by the top In each hand, like an old-stone savage armed. He moves in darkness as it seems to me, Not of woods only and the shade of trees. The complex meaning of the ambiguous poem can be summarized as follows: it is a poem about boundaries, barriers, in determinacy, conventions, tradition, innova- tion, dis agreements, individuality, community, property, behavior, commu- nication, knowledge, and folk wisdom, to be sure.
It is generally agreed that the speaker of the poem is not Robert Frost, who as the poet intended noth- ing more or less than to display the confrontation of two neighbors over the maintenance of a wall that, to make things even more difficult, is not really needed any longer for any pragmatic reasons.
But are things quite so simple with the meaning of the proverb? In other words, perhaps the old- fashioned neighbor really is not such a stubborn blockhead after all. He does in fact understand the meaning of the proverb quite differently from the speaker.
He sees the need of the fence to get along with his neighbor, that is, it is a positive and not a negative barrier or wall. The very fact that the message of the proverb is expressed indirectly through a metaphor makes its dual interpretation possible. Perhaps Robert Frost had nothing else in mind when he wrote this poem but to show that proverbs are verbal devices of mischievous indirection, reflecting by their ambiguous na- ture the perplexities of life itself.
The argument of the neighbors over the in validity of the proverb continues to the present day and will not cease to take place. The Maine village Looked so peaceful. Now if you drive through You see the split wood, Thin and shrill. Who made it, One side or the other? Bad neighbors make good fences.
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Learn about Continuity Camera. Core ML adds new instruments and performance reports in Xcode, so you can analyze your ML-powered features. Optimize your Core ML integration with new Float16 data types, efficient output backings, sparse weight compression, in-memory model support, and new options to restrict compute to the CPU and Neural Engine. In the Create ML app, explore key evaluation metrics and their connections to specific examples from your test data to help identify challenging scenarios and further investments in data collection to help improve model quality.
And use the new Create ML Components framework to define your own custom model and training pipelines by combining a rich set of ML building blocks. Learn about machine learning. Bring people together by offering SharePlay support in your apps. Set bitrate in bits per second. Only the following bitrates are supported, otherwise libavcodec will round to the nearest valid bitrate.
Allow discontinuous transmission generate comfort noise when set to 1. The default value is 0 disabled. Most libopus options are modelled after the opusenc utility from opus-tools.
The following is an option mapping chart describing options supported by the libopus wrapper, and their opusenc -equivalent in parentheses. Set VBR mode. The FFmpeg vbr option has the following valid arguments, with the opusenc equivalent options in parentheses:. Set encoding algorithm complexity. Valid options are integers in the range. Set maximum frame size, or duration of a frame in milliseconds.
The argument must be exactly the following: 2. Smaller frame sizes achieve lower latency but less quality at a given bitrate. Sizes greater than 20ms are only interesting at fairly low bitrates.
The default is 20ms. Enable inband forward error correction. Default is disabled. Set cutoff bandwidth in Hz. The argument must be exactly one of the following: , , , , or , corresponding to narrowband, mediumband, wideband, super wideband, and fullband respectively.
The default is 0 cutoff disabled. Set channel mapping family to be used by the encoder. The default value of -1 uses mapping family 0 for mono and stereo inputs, and mapping family 1 otherwise. The default also disables the surround masking and LFE bandwidth optimzations in libopus, and requires that the input contains 8 channels or fewer.
Other values include 0 for mono and stereo, 1 for surround sound with masking and LFE bandwidth optimizations, and for independent streams with an unspecified channel layout. If set to 0, disables the use of phase inversion for intensity stereo, improving the quality of mono downmixes, but slightly reducing normal stereo quality. The default is 1 phase inversion enabled. Shine is a fixed-point MP3 encoder. It has a far better performance on platforms without an FPU, e. However, as it is more targeted on performance than quality, it is not on par with LAME and other production-grade encoders quality-wise.
Requires the presence of the libshine headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libshine. The following options are supported by the libshine wrapper. The shineenc -equivalent of the options are listed in parentheses. Requires the presence of the libtwolame headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libtwolame.
The following options are supported by the libtwolame wrapper. The twolame -equivalent options follow the FFmpeg ones and are in parentheses. Default value is k. Set quality for experimental VBR support.
Maximum value range is from to 50, useful range is from to The higher the value, the better the quality. Set psychoacoustic model to use in encoding. The argument must be an integer between -1 and 4, inclusive. The default value is 3.
Requires the presence of the libvo-amrwbenc headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libvo-amrwbenc --enable-version3. Requires the presence of the libvorbisenc headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libvorbis. The following options are supported by the libvorbis wrapper. The oggenc -equivalent of the options are listed in parentheses.
The value should be a float number in the range of Set cutoff bandwidth in Hz, a value of 0 disables cutoff.
This only has effect on ABR mode. Set noise floor bias for impulse blocks. The value is a float number from A negative bias instructs the encoder to pay special attention to the crispness of transients in the encoded audio.
The tradeoff for better transient response is a higher bitrate. The following shared options are effective for this encoder. Only special notes about this particular encoder will be documented here. For the general meaning of the options, see the Codec Options chapter. For this encoder, the range for this option is between and Default is automatically decided based on sample rate and number of channel.
Set whether to enable optimization for mono. This option is only effective for non-mono streams. Available values:. Keyframe interval. A keyframe is inserted at least every -g frames, sometimes sooner. Quality factor. Lower is better. Higher gives lower bitrate. The minimum and maximum number of strips to use.
Wider range sometimes improves quality. More strips is generally better quality but costs more bits. Fewer strips tend to yield more keyframes. Vintage compatible is If disabled, every frame will always have a palette written, even if there is a global palette supplied.
Specifies the number of chunks to split frames into, between 1 and This permits multithreaded decoding of large frames, potentially at the cost of data-rate. The encoder may modify this value to divide frames evenly. Specifies the second-stage compressor to use. If set to none , chunks will be limited to 1, as chunked uncompressed frames offer no benefit.
The native jpeg encoder is lossy by default, the -q:v option can be used to set the encoding quality. Lossless encoding can be selected with -pred 1. By default, when this option is not used, compression is done using the quality metric. This option allows for compression using compression ratio. The compression ratio for each level could be specified. The compression ratio of a layer l species the what ratio of total file size is contained in the first l layers.
This would compress the image to contain 3 layers, where the data contained in the first layer would be compressed by times, compressed by in the first two layers, and shall contain all data while using all 3 layers.
Requires the presence of the rav1e headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-librav1e. See rav1e --help for a list of options. Requires the presence of the libaom headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libaom.
By default this will use variable-bitrate mode. If maxrate and minrate are also set to the same value then it will use constant-bitrate mode, otherwise if crf is set as well then it will use constrained-quality mode. Set key frame placement. The GOP size sets the maximum distance between key frames; if zero the output stream will be intra-only. The minimum distance is ignored unless it is the same as the GOP size, in which case key frames will always appear at a fixed interval.
Not set by default, so without this option the library has completely free choice about where to place key frames. Valid range is from 0 to 63 warning: this does not match the quantiser values actually used by AV1 - divide by four to map real quantiser values to this range.
Set rate control buffering parameters. Not used if not set - defaults to unconstrained variable bitrate. Set the number of threads to use while encoding. This may require the tiles or row-mt options to also be set to actually use the specified number of threads fully. Defaults to the number of hardware threads supported by the host machine. Set the encoding profile. Defaults to using the profile which matches the bit depth and chroma subsampling of the input. Valid range is from 0 to 8, higher numbers indicating greater speed and lower quality.
The default value is 1, which will be slow and high quality. Set the maximum number of frames which the encoder may keep in flight at any one time for lookahead purposes.
Valid range is 0 to 63, higher numbers indicating lower quality and smaller output size. Only used if set; by default only the bitrate target is used. Set a change threshold on blocks below which they will be skipped by the encoder.
Defined in arbitrary units as a nonnegative integer, defaulting to zero no blocks are skipped. Set a threshold for dropping frames when close to rate control bounds.
Defined as a percentage of the target buffer - when the rate control buffer falls below this percentage, frames will be dropped until it has refilled above the threshold. Defaults to zero no frames are dropped. Amount of noise to be removed for grain synthesis. Grain synthesis is disabled if this option is not set or set to 0.
Block size used for denoising for grain synthesis. If not set, AV1 codec uses the default value of Set datarate undershoot min percentage of the target bitrate. Range is -1 to Default is Set datarate overshoot max percentage of the target bitrate. Minimum percentage variation of the GOP bitrate from the target bitrate. Default is -1 unset. Maximum percentage variation of the GOP bitrate from the target bitrate. Set the number of tiles to encode the input video with, as columns x rows.
Larger numbers allow greater parallelism in both encoding and decoding, but may decrease coding efficiency. Defaults to the minimum number of tiles required by the size of the input video this is 1x1 that is, a single tile for sizes up to and including 4K.
Set the number of tiles as log2 of the number of tile rows and columns. Enable Constrained Directional Enhancement Filter.
The libaom-av1 encoder enables CDEF by default. Enable block copy mode for intra block prediction. This mode is useful for screen content. Default is true. For a list of supported options, see aomenc --help under the section "AV1 Specific Options". You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libsvtav1. Set the quality-speed tradeoff, in the range 0 to Higher values are faster but lower quality. Requires the presence of the libjxl headers and library during configuration.
You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libjxl. Set the target Butteraugli distance. Valid values range between 0. The default is 1. Set the encoding effort used. Valid values range from 1 to 9, and the default is 7. Force the encoder to use Modular mode instead of choosing automatically.
VarDCT is generally superior to Modular for lossy encoding but does not support lossless encoding. Requires the presence of the libkvazaar headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libkvazaar. See kvazaar documentation for a list of options. This encoder requires the presence of the libopenh headers and library during configuration. You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libopenh The library is detected using pkg-config.
Set the number of slices, used in parallelized encoding. Set profile restrictions. Requires the presence of the libtheora headers and library during configuration.
You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libtheora. The following global options are mapped to internal libtheora options which affect the quality and the bitrate of the encoded stream.
Used to enable constant quality mode VBR encoding through the qscale flag, and to enable the pass1 and pass2 modes. A higher value corresponds to a higher quality. Enable VBR mode when set to a non-negative value, and set constant quality value as a double floating point value in QP units. The value is clipped in the [] range, and then multiplied by 6. Requires the presence of the libvpx headers and library during configuration.
You need to explicitly configure the build with --enable-libvpx. The following options are supported by the libvpx wrapper.
The vpxenc -equivalent options or values are listed in parentheses for easy migration. To reduce the duplication of documentation, only the private options and some others requiring special attention are documented here.
For the documentation of the undocumented generic options, see the Codec Options chapter. Further information is available in the libvpx API documentation. Set ratecontrol buffer size in bits. Set number of bits which should be loaded into the rc buffer before decoding starts. Use best quality deadline. Poorly named and quite slow, this option should be avoided as it may give worse quality output than good. Use good quality deadline. This is a good trade-off between speed and quality when used with the cpu-used option.
Enable use of alternate reference frames 2-pass only. Values greater than 1 enable multi-layer alternate reference frames VP9 only. For example, to specify temporal scalability parameters with ffmpeg :. Target bitrate for each temporal layer in kbps. Currently supports the following options. No temporal layering flags are provided internally, relies on flags being passed in using metadata field in AVFrame with following keys. Sets the flags passed into the encoder to indicate the referencing scheme for the current frame.
Same as option "3", except there is a dependency between the two temporal layer 2 frames within the temporal period. Set number of tile columns to use. For example, 8 tile columns would be requested by setting the tile-columns option to 3. Set number of tile rows to use. For example, 4 tile rows would be requested by setting the tile-rows option to 2. Set adaptive quantization mode 0: off default , 1: variance 2: complexity, 3: cyclic refresh, 4: equator Corpus VBR mode is a variant of standard VBR where the complexity distribution midpoint is passed in rather than calculated for a specific clip or chunk.
For example,. It can encode in either lossy or lossless mode. Lossy images are essentially a wrapper around a VP8 frame. Lossless images are a separate codec developed by Google. Alpha is supported for either mode.
Because of API limitations, if RGB is passed in when encoding lossy or YUV is passed in for encoding lossless, the pixel format will automatically be converted using functions from libwebp.
This is not ideal and is done only for convenience. Higher values give better quality for a given size at the cost of increased encoding time.
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It can also convert between arbitrary sample rates and resize video on the fly with a high quality polyphase filter. Anything found on the command line which cannot be interpreted as an option is considered to be an output url.
Selecting which streams from which inputs will go into which output is either done automatically or with the -map option see the Stream selection chapter. To refer to input files in options, you must use their indices 0-based.
Similarly, streams within a file are referred to by their indices. Also see the Stream specifiers chapter. As a general rule, options are applied to the next specified file.
Therefore, order is important, and you can have the same option on the command line multiple times. Each occurrence is then applied to the next input or output file.
Exceptions from this rule are the global options e. Do not mix input and output files — first specify all input files, then all output files. Also do not mix options which belong to different files. All options apply ONLY to the next input or output file and are reset between files. The transcoding process in ffmpeg for each output can be described by the following diagram:. When there are multiple input files, ffmpeg tries to keep them synchronized by tracking lowest timestamp on any active input stream.
Encoded packets are then passed to the decoder unless streamcopy is selected for the stream, see further for a description. After filtering, the frames are passed to the encoder, which encodes them and outputs encoded packets.
Finally those are passed to the muxer, which writes the encoded packets to the output file. Before encoding, ffmpeg can process raw audio and video frames using filters from the libavfilter library.
Several chained filters form a filter graph. Simple filtergraphs are those that have exactly one input and output, both of the same type. In the above diagram they can be represented by simply inserting an additional step between decoding and encoding:. Simple filtergraphs are configured with the per-stream -filter option with -vf and -af aliases for video and audio respectively. A simple filtergraph for video can look for example like this:.
Note that some filters change frame properties but not frame contents. Another example is the setpts filter, which only sets timestamps and otherwise passes the frames unchanged. Complex filtergraphs are those which cannot be described as simply a linear processing chain applied to one stream. They can be represented with the following diagram:. Note that this option is global, since a complex filtergraph, by its nature, cannot be unambiguously associated with a single stream or file.
A trivial example of a complex filtergraph is the overlay filter, which has two video inputs and one video output, containing one video overlaid on top of the other. Its audio counterpart is the amix filter. Stream copy is a mode selected by supplying the copy parameter to the -codec option. It makes ffmpeg omit the decoding and encoding step for the specified stream, so it does only demuxing and muxing. It is useful for changing the container format or modifying container-level metadata.
The diagram above will, in this case, simplify to this:. Since there is no decoding or encoding, it is very fast and there is no quality loss. However, it might not work in some cases because of many factors. Applying filters is obviously also impossible, since filters work on uncompressed data. Users can skip -map and let ffmpeg perform automatic stream selection as described below. The sub-sections that follow describe the various rules that are involved in stream selection. The examples that follow next show how these rules are applied in practice.
While every effort is made to accurately reflect the behavior of the program, FFmpeg is under continuous development and the code may have changed since the time of this writing. In the absence of any map options for a particular output file, ffmpeg inspects the output format to check which type of streams can be included in it, viz.
For each acceptable stream type, ffmpeg will pick one stream, when available, from among all the inputs. In the case where several streams of the same type rate equally, the stream with the lowest index is chosen.
Data or attachment streams are not automatically selected and can only be included using -map. When -map is used, only user-mapped streams are included in that output file, with one possible exception for filtergraph outputs described below. If there are any complex filtergraph output streams with unlabeled pads, they will be added to the first output file.
This will lead to a fatal error if the stream type is not supported by the output format. In the absence of the map option, the inclusion of these streams leads to the automatic stream selection of their types being skipped. If map options are present, these filtergraph streams are included in addition to the mapped streams. Stream handling is independent of stream selection, with an exception for subtitles described below.
Stream handling is set via the -codec option addressed to streams within a specific output file. In particular, codec options are applied by ffmpeg after the stream selection process and thus do not influence the latter.
If no -codec option is specified for a stream type, ffmpeg will select the default encoder registered by the output file muxer.
An exception exists for subtitles. If a subtitle encoder is specified for an output file, the first subtitle stream found of any type, text or image, will be included.
This applies generally as well: when the user sets an encoder manually, the stream selection process cannot check if the encoded stream can be muxed into the output file. If it cannot, ffmpeg will abort and all output files will fail to be processed.
There are three output files specified, and for the first two, no -map options are set, so ffmpeg will select streams for these two files automatically. For video, it will select stream 0 from B.
For audio, it will select stream 3 from B. For subtitles, it will select stream 2 from B. For out3. The -map 1:a option will select all audio streams from the second input B. No other streams will be included in this output file. For the first two outputs, all included streams will be transcoded.
The encoders chosen will be the default ones registered by each output format, which may not match the codec of the selected input streams. For the third output, codec option for audio streams has been set to copy , so no decoding-filtering-encoding operations will occur, or can occur.
Packets of selected streams shall be conveyed from the input file and muxed within the output file. Although out1. The subtitle stream of C. However, in out2. The presence of -an disables audio stream selection for out2.
The overlay filter requires exactly two video inputs, but none are specified, so the first two available video streams are used, those of A. The output pad of the filter has no label and so is sent to the first output file out1.
Due to this, automatic selection of the video stream is skipped, which would have selected the stream in B. The audio stream with most channels viz. The 2nd output file, out2. So, even though the first subtitle stream available belongs to C. The selected stream, stream 2 in B.
The above command will fail, as the output pad labelled [outv] has been mapped twice. None of the output files shall be processed. The video stream from B. Then a copy each is mapped to the first and third output files. The overlay filter, requiring two video inputs, uses the first two unused video streams. Those are the streams from A. The aresample filter is sent the first unused audio stream, that of A.
Since this filter output is also unlabelled, it too is mapped to the first output file. The presence of -an only suppresses automatic or manual stream selection of audio streams, not outputs sent from filtergraphs. Both these mapped streams shall be ordered before the mapped stream in out1.
The video, audio and subtitle streams mapped to out2. Options which do not take arguments are boolean options, and set the corresponding value to true. They can be set to false by prefixing the option name with "no". For example using "-nofoo" will set the boolean option with name "foo" to false.
Some options are applied per-stream, e. Stream specifiers are used to precisely specify which stream s a given option belongs to. A stream specifier is a string generally appended to the option name and separated from it by a colon. Therefore, it would select the ac3 codec for the second audio stream.
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Proverbs—History and criticism. M No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Used by permission of Oxford University Press, Inc. UK Rights granted by Faber and Faber. Falling from Silence. Poems, by David R. Reprinted by permission of Louisiana University Press.
Compliments of Banknorth Vermont. Johnson, ed. Every reasonable effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright materials in this book, but in some instances this has proved impossible. The author and publisher will be glad to receive information leading to more complete acknowledgments in subsequent printings of the book and in the meantime extend their apologies for any omissions.
Proverbs contain everyday ex- periences and common observations in succinct and formulaic language, making them easy to remember and ready to be used instantly as effective rhetoric in oral or written communication.
This has been the case during preliterate times, and there are no signs that proverbs have outlived their use- fulness in modern technological societies either.
Occasional claims persist that proverbs are on their way to extinction in highly developed cultures, but nothing could be further from the truth.
While some proverbs have dropped out of use because their message or metaphor does not fit the times any longer, new proverbs that reflect the mores and situation of the present are constantly added to the proverbial repertoire. If shoes are repaired at all, people now take them to a shoe-repair shop, and they most likely would have no idea that a last is a wooden or metal model of the human foot on which a shoe is placed during repair. The proverb expressed the idea that one should stick to that work or field in which one is competent or skilled.
In any case, proverbs are in- deed alive and well, and as sapient nuggets they continue to play a significant role in the modern age. They have been collected and studied for centuries as informative and useful linguistic signs of cultural values and thoughts. The earliest proverb collections stem from the third millennium B.
Since proverb collections usually list the texts of proverbs without their social contexts, they do not reveal their actual use and function that varies from one situation to another. Neverthe- less, the long history of proverb collections from classical antiquity to the present is truly impressive, ranging from compilations of texts only to richly annotated scholarly compendia. For most languages there are major multi- volume proverb collections available to readers interested in the origin, his- tory, and distribution of their proverbs.
In fact, the extant bibliographies of proverb collections have registered over 20, volumes with about new publications each year. Many of these are small collections of several hundred texts for the general book market, but invaluable scholarly collections also continue to be produced with thousands of references.
The other side is referred to as paremiology study of proverbs. It too has a long history, dating back at least as far as Aristotle who had much to say about various aspects of proverbs. In contrast to paremiographers, who oc- cupy themselves with the collecting and classifying of proverbs, the paremi- ologists address such questions as the definition, form, structure, style, content, function, meaning, and value of proverbs. Especially linguists have decided to refer to all formulaic phrases as phraseological units or phraseologisms.
They have created a new subfield of study, which they have designated as phraseology the study of phrases. That scholarly term serves as an umbrella for all phrasal colloca- tions, including the entire area of paremiology.
Linguists also occupy them- selves with phraseography collection and classification of phrases , once again incorporating paremiography as well. And yet, most linguists deal only tangentially with proverbs as such in their publications. When they do so, they usually employ the Greek term based on paremia proverb , clearly indi- cating that proverbs are very special phraseological units.
While phraseolo- gists do and should include proverbs in their linguistic studies, paremiologists usually look at proverbs from a more inclusive point of view as they draw on such fields as anthropology, art, communication, culture, folklore, history, lit- erature, philology, psychology, religion, and sociology. As with paremiography, the paremiological scholarship has an impressive history and continues to be very active today. About significant books, dissertations, and scholarly articles are published each year.
The majority of these studies as well as the new or reprinted collections are listed in my annual bibliographies in Proverbium: Yearbook of International Proverb Scholarship.
These lists include all the proverb publications that I have been able to add during any particular year to my international proverb archive at the Univer- sity of Vermont.
The archive contains close to 10, scholarly studies on proverbs and also about 4, proverb collections from many languages. About 9, slides of various iconographic representations of proverbs in art woodcuts, misericords, emblems, oil paintings and the mass media carica- tures, cartoons, headlines, advertisements are also part of this archive that serves scholars and students worldwide.
For many cultures scholars have written a definitive book on the history of both the paremiographical publications and paremiological studies. The En- glish language is no exception in this regard. In the middle of the nineteenth century the philologist and theologian Richard Chenevix Trench — presented his slim volume On the Lessons in Proverbs that went through seven editions during his lifetime and several more later on, including a final edition in with the slightly changed title of Proverbs and Their Lessons.
The book represents an important survey of the origin, nature, distribution, meaning, and significance of proverbs in the English-speaking world. Realiz- ing that all scholars stand on the shoulders of their precursors, I prepared a reprint in , about years after the original publication, of this still in- valuable and most readable study.
Gallacher, Richard Jente, Wayland D. Hand, John G. Taylor also analyzes customs and superstitions reflected in proverbs, he looks at legal, medical, and weather proverbs, and he investigates their content and style. Proverbial stereotypes, proverbial expressions and comparisons, and wellerisms are also discussed in this comprehensive and comparative volume on European proverbs.
It is then a daunting task for me to present my own attempt of yet another treatise on proverbs. I have learned much from the three books by Trench, Hulme, and Taylor, but their volumes are , , and 75 years old, respec- tively. The time has clearly come to take a fresh look at proverbs that is based on the work of these three paremiological scholars but that is also informed by the new scholarship of the past seven decades, including to a considerable degree my own extensive work in this field.
There will be considerable mate- rials and theoretical findings in my volume that were not available or known to my three precursors. The former were meant for a wide readership, while Taylor was ad- dressing a scholarly community that justified a comparative approach based on proverbs in various foreign languages. My book is intended for the edu- cated general reader with an emphasis on Anglo-American proverbs in En- glish-language contexts.
It is also but one volume in the Greenwood Folklore Handbooks series, and as such it is by necessity and design confined to a pre- scribed outline and structure. Since the book is intended for English readers, almost all proverbs discussed will be from the Anglo-American corpus. When proverbs are cited from other languages, they will usually be rendered in En- glish translation only. This linguistic restriction is also evident in the short chapter bibliographies often referring to journal articles or book chapters and the extensive bibliography including only book-length studies at the end of the volume.
The present book is thus not an inclusive international and comparative survey of paremiology, but it is an attempt to lay out the rich field of proverbs to general readers of English anywhere in the world. What will be stated and explained by quoting from the Anglo-American stock of proverbs will for the most part be transferable to the proverbial wisdom of other cultures and languages. At the end of these introductory remarks I would like to thank George Butler, general editor of the Greenwood Folklore Handbooks series, for his help and guidance during my work on this book.
I also extend many thanks to Audrey Klein and Karl F. In addition I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my friend Alan Dundes Berkeley for his continued interest in and comments on my proverb studies. My colleagues and my students in the Department of Ger- man and Russian at the University of Vermont have also been most support- ive.
The same is true for my wife, Barbara Mieder, who lets me be the proverbial fool obsessed with his research endeavors. And lasting thanks and appreciation are due my beloved father, Horst Mieder, whose death I grieved while working on this book. He instilled in me a solid work ethic and showed me by example that a good life includes helping and caring for others. The vast scholarship on proverbs is ample proof that they are anything but mundane matters in human communication.
Proverbs fulfill the human need to summarize experiences and observations into nuggets of wisdom that provide ready-made comments on personal relationships and social affairs. There are proverbs for every imaginable context, and they are thus as contra- dictory as life itself. But when the proper proverb is chosen for a particular situation, it is bound to fit perfectly and it becomes an effective formulaic strategy of communication. And contrary to some isolated opinions, proverbs have not lost their usefulness in modern society.
They serve people well in oral speech and the written word, coming to mind almost automatically as pre- fabricated verbal units. While the frequency of their employment might well vary among people and contexts, proverbs are a significant rhetorical force in various modes of communication, from friendly chats, powerful political speeches, and religious sermons to lyrical poetry, best-seller novels, and the influential mass media. Proverbs are in fact everywhere, and it is exactly their ubiquity that has led scholars from many disciplines to study them from clas- sical times to the modern age.
While the first part of this section deals with definition matters, the second part analyzes how proverbs have been classified in a multitude of different ways in thousands of proverb collections of differing quality and scope. Suffice it to say that there exist many major proverb dictionaries that list equivalent proverbs from 2 to 15 different languages.
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